It is in the nature of man, perhaps the nature of all living beings entirely, to inherently wonder and theorize about the true matter of the world that lies before him. Possessing a conscious mind dedicated to deducing information and achieving critical conclusions, it would indeed be quite unnatural for such an organism to not hold at least a shred of curiosity regarding his origins, the reason for his existence, and the underlying mechanisms powering his environment. While most animals are satisfied with understanding the scope of their world from the sensory information they acquire, human beings have always held interest about the higher plan for existence, the essential skeleton of a world otherwise covered by the visible, mundane texture of land. Once a civilization has settled down from their wild, nomadic origins, this question of truth inevitably becomes one of the most tantalizing curiosities in its people’s minds, perhaps simply due to its everlasting mystery and uncertainty.
China has historically been no stranger to the pursuit of truth, and in its countless years of existence, many an enlightened man has attempted to determine the answers. Although a myriad of scholars rose to the challenge in the Hundred Schools of Thought, only a select few philosophies have stood the test of time to remain immensely popular ideologies for the Middle Kingdom. The greatest curiosity about these surviving philosophies, however, could be the great levels of difference contained in their basic concepts of existence and reality. With conclusions of life spanning so widely among the beliefs yet remaining almost equally influential and popular across the years of history, the mysterious nature of the ultimate truth only magnifies. Although the three classic Chinese philosophies contain harmonious and overlapping qualities amongst themselves, particularly in their societal problem-based origins, their fundamental differences come from contrasting views of ultimate reality and truth: Confucianism, Buddhism, and Daoism respectively focus upon upholding interpersonal, intrapersonal, and universal morals.
As one of the fundamental principles behind the existence of philosophy, the divergent roles of truth between each ideology hold paramount importance in explaining the most important differences amongst them. In this matter truth, as a measure of morality according to the values of each creed, identifies the most important actions and mindsets expected of humans in the world of the three philosophies. However, the level of tangibility and direct impact upon humans for truth will vary; the difference between a simple plan for humans to live amicably together and an exposé on why humans exist altogether separates the philosophies from one another.
In the case of Confucianism, it is moral law and human decency that governs all activities in the universe; in the eyes of Confucius, “There is no place in the highest heavens above or in the deepest waters below where the moral law is not to be found” (Doctrine of the Mean 12). Notably, however, this view of truth in the universe is simply interpreted as the optimal method of preserving harmony and peace within the world, not a literal explanation of how the universe works. In this regard, Confucianism sharply contrasts with the universal interpretations of truth found in the gospels of Daoism and Buddhism, whose truths are meant to expound the reality of the universe. Indeed, Daoism holds the concept that obedience toward the natural course and flow of the universe (the Dao) is naturally essential for proper living; as Laozi stated, “If people do not revere the Law of Nature, it will inexorably and adversely affect them. If they accept it with knowledge and reverence, it will accommodate them with balance and harmony”. Buddhism carries this interpretation of truth as an explanation of natural law even further, with the concept of life’s suffering as expressed in the Four Noble Truths dictating the very nature of why humans exist on this plane of reality. As tenets of philosophical teachings, all three concepts of truth are meant to analyze the ideal human behavior, but their actual existences vary in magnitude from advice (Confucianism) to natural law (Daoism) to explanations of reality (Buddhism).
The raw interpretations of reality garnered from each Chinese philosophy strike even greater differences amongst them, providing the essence of how each school of thought was designed for a particular purpose. For Confucianism, the virtually unmentioned opinions of the afterlife or the existence of greater parts to reality reflect the fact that the philosophy falls short of being classified as a religion. Indeed, since Confucius designed his ideology as a method of attaining harmony in society, he specifically dodges or ambiguously answers all questions regarding the true nature of reality. For example, The Analects include quotes regarding the deity Tian that appear to starkly contradict one another, jumping rapidly from the indifferent “If Tian is about to abandon this culture, those who die afterwards will not get to share in it; if Tian has not yet abandoned this culture, what can [Confucius’s enemies] do to me? (9:5)” to the panicking “Tian has abandoned me! Tian has abandoned me! (11:9)”. In this manner, without any definite answers or conclusions toward the nature of gods and reality Confucianism can be distinctly understood as a simple philosophy geared only toward the material, existing world.
Conversely, Daoism and Buddhism, unlike Confucianism, directly address and confront the idea of reality as critical tenets in their ideologies, thus more heavily classifying their philosophies as true religions. Daoism asserts that the universe and everything within it is naturally connected and harmoniously flowing, tangibly applying the abstract idea of the Dao into the existing world. This is clear from even the very beginnings of Laozi’s writings, in which he declares, “There is a thing, formless yet complete; before heaven and earth it existed. Without sound, without substance, it stands alone and unchanging. It is all-pervading and unfailing. One may think of it as the mother of all beneath Heaven. We do not know its name, but we call it Tao. Deep and still, it seems to have existed forever”. Likewise, Buddhism also clearly defines its view of reality in the universe with no hesitation: based around the concept of samsara, life is a continuous cycle of death and rebirth guided by the application of karma during lifetimes. As the legendary Padmasambhava asserted, “All beings have lived and died and been reborn countless times. Over and over again they have experienced the indescribable Clear Light. But because they are obscured by the darkness of ignorance, they wander endlessly in a limitless samsara.” In this manner, although Daoism and Buddhism have very different views of reality’s true nature, they are alike in their common, clear statements of this ethereal viewpoint. Confucianism most notably departs from its fellow two schools of thought by not also creating an “Ultimate Reality” view, thus emerging as the only ideology that cannot also be classified as a religion.
The disparities among interpretations of truth and reality between the three religions most likely came into existence from the varying reasons for the philosophies’ existences. While each of Confucianism, Daoism, and Buddhism were meant to explain the nature of the universe and the proper human response toward it, their origins reflected the starkly differing needs in society the ideologies were meant to satisfy. Although Laozi’s personal life and situation are as unknown as his existence, the comparatively recognized histories of Confucius and Buddha help to provide a basis of the reasons behind the inner workings of their ideologies. As Confucianism and Buddhism are built around establishing harmony in human interactions and relieving the inevitable suffering of the world, respectively, they each reflect the main problems present within the lives of their creators. As the Eastern Zhou empire began to fall in authority to the smaller surrounding states, resulting in a similar decline in Chinese values and virtues, Confucius enacted his philosophy to repair the damage in morals. As such, the main tenets such as hierarchy, obedience, and human decency were designed with the goal of once again returning China to its former prosperity and dignity. Buddhism, in sharp contrast, was formed after Siddhartha Gautama witnessed the frailty and suffering of mankind, determined to discover a solution to the quagmire with which he was presented. Indeed, the two philosophies were each devised to combat problems witnessed in society; since these problems were quite unlike each other, it follows that the main tenets of truth and reality for the two schools of thought would focus on and reflect the lifestyles of their origins.
